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Musical cryptogram

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A musical cryptogram is a <a href="Cryptogram" title="Cryptogram">cryptogrammatic</a> sequence of <a href="List_of_musical_symbols" title="List of musical symbols">musical symbols</a> which can be taken to refer to an extra-musical text by some 'logical' relationship, usually between note names and letters. The most common and best known examples result from composers using musically translated versions of their own or their friends' names (or initials) as <a href="Theme_(music)" class="mw-redirect" title="Theme (music)">themes</a> or <a href="Motif_(music)" title="Motif (music)">motifs</a> in their compositions, with an early and commonly known example being the BACH sequence used by the composer. These are not really rigorous <a href="Cipher" title="Cipher">cipher</a> algorithms in the formal sense, but more like musical monograms or labels using initials. The methods used historically by composers were either too incomplete (i.e., did not include all of the letters of the alphabet) or too simplistic to meaningfully encrypt long text messages. There is a separate history of <a href="Music_cipher" title="Music cipher">music ciphers</a> utilizing <a href="Music_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Music notation">music notation</a> to <a href="Code_(cryptography)" title="Code (cryptography)">encode</a> messages for reasons of <a href="Espionage" title="Espionage">espionage</a> or personal security that involved <a href="Encryption" title="Encryption">encryption</a> and/or <a href="Steganography" title="Steganography">steganography</a>.

Because of the multitudinous ways in which various musical notes and textual letters and other elements can be related, or not, detecting hidden ciphers in music and proving accurate decipherment can be difficult.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

From the initial assignment by Western music theorists of letter names to notes in the 9th century<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> it became possible to reverse the procedure and assign notes to the letters of names. However, this does not seem to have become a widely recognized technique until the Romantic period. From the mid-19th century it has become quite common. Sporadic earlier encipherments used <a href="Solmization" title="Solmization">solmization</a> syllables.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systems">Systems</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllables_to_solmization_names">Syllables to solmization names</h3></div>

It is believed that this method was first used by <a href="Josquin_des_Prez" title="Josquin des Prez">Josquin des Prez</a> in his Missa Hercules Dux Ferrarie. It was named <a href="Soggetto_cavato" title="Soggetto cavato">Soggetto cavato</a> by the later theorist <a href="Zarlino" class="mw-redirect" title="Zarlino">Zarlino</a>. Under this scheme the vowel sounds in the text are matched to the vowel sounds of the solmization syllables of <a href="Guido_of_Arezzo" title="Guido of Arezzo">Guido of Arezzo</a> (where 'ut' is the root, which we now call 'do'). Thus the Latin name of the dedicatee 'Hercules Dux Ferrarie' (<a href="Ercole_d'Este_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Ercole d'Este I">Ercole d'Este, Duke of Ferrara</a>) becomes re-ut-re-ut-re-fa-mi-re, which translates as D-C-D-C-D-F-E-D in modern notation with C as 'ut'. This is used as the <a href="Cantus_firmus" title="Cantus firmus">cantus firmus</a> of the mass setting. Josquin's method was imitated by several of his contemporaries and successors, including <a href="Adrian_Willaert" title="Adrian Willaert">Adrian Willaert</a> and <a href="Costanzo_Festa" title="Costanzo Festa">Costanzo Festa</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letters_to_note_names">Letters to note names</h3></div>

Since the note names only cover letters A to G (reflecting the octave repetition of these names), the problem arises as to how to cipher the rest of the alphabet. Historically there have been two main solutions, which may be labelled for convenience the 'German' and the 'French' methods.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="German">German</h4></div>

Because the development of note names took place within the framework of <a href="Musical_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Musical mode">modes</a>, in the German-speaking world B♭ was named 'B' and B♮ was named 'H'. The most common musical cryptogram is the <a href="BACH_motif" title="BACH motif">B-A-C-H motif</a>, which was used by <a href="Johann_Sebastian_Bach" title="Johann Sebastian Bach">Johann Sebastian Bach</a> himself, by his contemporaries and by many later composers. Other note names were derived by sound, for example E♭, 'Es' in German, could represent 'S' and A♭ the digraph 'As'.

Composers less fortunate than Bach usually seem to have chosen to ignore non-musical letters in generating their motifs. For example, <a href="Robert_Schumann" title="Robert Schumann">Robert Schumann</a>, an inveterate user of cryptograms, has just S-C-H-A (E♭, C, B♮, A) to represent himself in <a href="Carnaval_(Schumann)" title="Carnaval (Schumann)">Carnaval</a>. Sometimes phonetic substitution could be used, Schumann representing Bezeth by B-E-S-E-D-H. <a href="Johannes_Brahms" title="Johannes Brahms">Johannes Brahms</a> used B-A-H-S (B♭, A, B♮, E♭) for his surname in the A♭ minor organ fugue, and the mixed language Gis-E-La (G♯, E, A) for <a href="Gisela_von_Arnim" title="Gisela von Arnim">Gisela von Arnim</a>, among many examples.<a href="#cite_note-sams-3">[3]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French">French</h4></div>

The 'French' method of generating cryptograms arose late in the 19th century and was more akin to normal <a href="Cipher" title="Cipher">encipherment</a>. The most popular version involved writing out the letters H–N, O–U and V–Z in lines under the original diatonic notes A–G, as follows:

<th>A

</th>

<th>B

</th>

<th>C

</th>

<th>D

</th>

<th>E

</th>

<th>F

</th>

<th>G

</th></tr>

<tr>

<td>H

</td>

<td>I

</td>

<td>J

</td>

<td>K

</td>

<td>L

</td>

<td>M

</td>

<td>N

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>O

</td>

<td>P

</td>

<td>Q

</td>

<td>R

</td>

<td>S

</td>

<td>T

</td>

<td>U

</td></tr>

<tr>

<td>V

</td>

<td>W

</td>

<td>X

</td>

<td>Y

</td>

<td>Z

</td>

<td colspan="2" data-sort-value="" style="background: var(--background-color-interactive, #ececec); color: var(--color-base, inherit); vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;" class="table-na">—

</td></tr></tbody></table>

so that A, H, O, and V are enciphered by note 'A', B, I, P and W by 'B' (flat or natural) and so on.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> This scheme was used by <a href="Jules_%C3%89corcheville" title="Jules Écorcheville">Jules Écorcheville</a>, editor of the journal S.I.M., to solicit centenary commemorations of <a href="Joseph_Haydn" title="Joseph Haydn">Joseph Haydn</a> in 1909, except that he diverted the 'H' to B♮, presumably to avoid too many repeated notes.<a href="#cite_note-sams-3">[3]</a> Writing to <a href="Gabriel_Faur%C3%A9" title="Gabriel Fauré">Gabriel Fauré</a> about the invitation, <a href="Camille_Saint-Sa%C3%ABns" title="Camille Saint-Saëns">Camille Saint-Saëns</a> said he was writing to Écorcheville asking him to prove that Y and N could signify D and G as "it would be annoying to get mixed up in a farcical business which would make us a laughing stock in the German musical world."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a>

The many-to-one mapping of this method makes it more difficult to extract possible motifs from the musical score than the <a href="Bijection" title="Bijection">one-to-one correspondence</a> (apart from 'As') of the German system.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3></div>

A French tradition of celebratory uses developed from the Haydn centenary, with tributes to Gabriel Fauré by <a href="Maurice_Ravel" title="Maurice Ravel">Maurice Ravel</a>, <a href="Florent_Schmitt" title="Florent Schmitt">Florent Schmitt</a>, <a href="Charles_Koechlin" title="Charles Koechlin">Charles Koechlin</a> and others in 1922 (added to in 1949 by <a href="Arnold_Bax" title="Arnold Bax">Arnold Bax</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>), and to <a href="Albert_Roussel" title="Albert Roussel">Albert Roussel</a> by <a href="Francis_Poulenc" title="Francis Poulenc">Francis Poulenc</a>, <a href="Arthur_Honegger" title="Arthur Honegger">Arthur Honegger</a>, <a href="Darius_Milhaud" title="Darius Milhaud">Darius Milhaud</a> and others (using various ciphering schemes) in 1929. Honegger's system involved placing the letters after 'H' under sharpened and flattened notes,<a href="#cite_note-sams-3">[3]</a> an example of how chromatic cryptograms could be more easily accommodated in <a href="20th-century_music" title="20th-century music">20th-century music</a>.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a>

<a href="Olivier_Messiaen" title="Olivier Messiaen">Olivier Messiaen</a> developed his own full cipher, involving pitches and note lengths, for his organ work <a href="M%C3%A9ditations_sur_le_myst%C3%A8re_de_la_Sainte_Trinit%C3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité">Méditations sur le mystère de la Sainte Trinité</a> (1969).<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a>

<a href="Dmitri_Shostakovich" title="Dmitri Shostakovich">Dmitri Shostakovich</a> used the German scheme for his personal motto D-Es-C-H (D, E♭, C, B♮), representing <a href="DSCH_motif" title="DSCH motif">D.SCH</a>, which appears in many of his works.

<a href="Elliott_Carter" title="Elliott Carter">Elliott Carter</a> featured both a cryptogram for the last name "<a href="Pierre_Boulez" title="Pierre Boulez">Boulez</a>" in his piece Réflexions (2004) and a sonic symbol of the first name "Pierre".<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a>

Cryptograms were less common in England, but <a href="Edward_Elgar" title="Edward Elgar">Edward Elgar</a>, who was also interested in general cryptography and puzzles, wrote an early Allegretto for his pupils the Gedge sisters using G-E-D-G-E<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a>; his <a href="Enigma_Variations" title="Enigma Variations">Enigma Variations</a> involves extensive use of abbreviations (friends' initials) and cryptograms and potentially even a broader enigma to be '<a href="Enigma_Variations" title="Enigma Variations">solved</a>'.

<a href="Andersen_Viana" title="Andersen Viana">Andersen Viana</a> Brazilian multiartist has used the BbACB (Bach) cryptogram in his symphonic poem "Coeviaca: the messenger of fire".

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Others">Others</h3></div>

In 1947 <a href="Friedrich_Smend" title="Friedrich Smend">Friedrich Smend</a> suggested that Bach enciphered significant numbers through methods including repetitions of a motif, <a href="Lyrics" title="Lyrics">word</a>, or <a href="Phrase_(music)" title="Phrase (music)">phrase</a>; the notes played on the <a href="Basso_continuo" title="Basso continuo">continuo</a>; the use of <a href="Sequence_(music)" title="Sequence (music)">sequence</a>; and the notes played by the <a href="Accompaniment" title="Accompaniment">accompaniment</a>. However, Ruth Tatlow has presented evidence questioning the plausibility of Smend's claims.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

During the first quarter of the 20th century, American author and occultist <a href="Paul_Foster_Case" title="Paul Foster Case">Paul Foster Case</a> established an esoteric musical cryptogram for the purposes of ceremonial magick. The system was a derivative of a cipher used by an affiliated magical order called the <a href="Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Each note of the 12 tone system was assigned a set of correspondences including colors, planets, zodiacal signs, and Hebrew letters. The holy names of biblical characters were translated letter by letter into a linear sequence of musical notes, so that each letter could be sung by the congregation in unison.

Ezra Sandzer-Bell has written and published two books on this subject,<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> describing how Paul Foster Case's system of musical cryptography could be applied to songwriting. Any word can be translated phonetically into Hebrew and converted using Case's cryptogram to generate a series of notes. Sandzer-Bell's project involves the conversion of the common and Latin names of plants, trees, and mushrooms into melodies. Each song was composed by consuming the plant in tea or <a href="Tincture" title="Tincture">tincture</a> form, then using the physical effects of the plant to determine what kind of rhythm, harmony, instruments, and dynamics to use. A lengthy demonstration and proof concept is publicly available on the author's website.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

Solfa Cipher, invented in 2013, uses a combination of scale degrees and rhythms to represent letters of the alphabet with the goal generating encrypted texts which sound like relatively normal singable melodies.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> As such, it has been used by musicians to create longer pieces with hidden messages. It has also been featured as a plot device in mysteries such as Gary McAvoy's Vivaldi Cipher.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> and purportedly the video game <a href="Fortnite" title="Fortnite">Fortnite</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Summary_of_signature_motifs">Summary of signature motifs</h2></div>

The following list includes only motifs which are known to have been used in published works.

<dl><dd>for <a href="Aubrey_Brain" title="Aubrey Brain">Aubrey Brain</a>, used in <a href="Gordon_Jacob" title="Gordon Jacob">Gordon Jacob</a>'s Sextet for Piano and Winds, which was inscribed "In memoriam Aubrey Brain"</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Alban_Berg" title="Alban Berg">Alban Berg</a> and <a href="Hanna_Fuchs-Robettin" title="Hanna Fuchs-Robettin">Hanna Fuchs-Robettin</a> (A. B. and H. F.), used in Berg's <a href="Lyric_Suite_(Berg)" title="Lyric Suite (Berg)">Lyric Suite</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for Meta Abegg, the fictional inspiration for Robert Schumann's <a href="Variations_on_the_name_%22Abegg%22" title="Variations on the name "Abegg"">Abegg Variations</a>, op. 1<a href="#cite_note-Blom-23">[23]</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>the nickname ("Acka Dacka") for <a href="AC/DC" title="AC/DC">AC/DC</a>, used in the guitar riff for the band's 1977 song <a href="Whole_Lotta_Rosie" title="Whole Lotta Rosie">Whole Lotta Rosie</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Jehan_Alain" title="Jehan Alain">Jehan Alain</a>, used by <a href="Maurice_Durufl%C3%A9" title="Maurice Duruflé">Maurice Duruflé</a> in his Prélude et Fuge sur le nom d'Alain (op. 7) and derived on the <a href="#French">French system</a> but leaving H = B♮ and starting the second line with 'I'</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Alfred_Schnittke" title="Alfred Schnittke">Alfred Schnittke</a> and Vladimir Feltzmann, used by Alfred Schnittke in his Sonata No. 1</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>used in Schumann's Carnaval, Op. 9.<a href="#cite_note-Blom-23">[23]</a> He was romantically involved with <a href="Ernestine_von_Fricken" title="Ernestine von Fricken">Ernestine von Fricken</a>, who came from the town of <a href="A%C5%A1" title="Aš">Aš</a>, in German "Asch". Every piece in the whole cycle is based on one or other of these motifs. The letters are also the note names from 'Schumann' and he added the motif E♭, C, B, A (= S, C, H, A) so that three are displayed in breves in the section 'Sphinxes'. It has been noted that ASCH and SCHA also appear in the title of Schumann's <a href="Faschingsschwank_aus_Wien" title="Faschingsschwank aus Wien">Faschingsschwank aus Wien</a>, Op. 26.</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Arnold_Schoenberg" title="Arnold Schoenberg">Arnold Schoenberg</a> (A. Schönberg),<a href="#cite_note-Taruskin-19">[19]</a> set <a href="Schoenberg_hexachord" title="Schoenberg hexachord">6-Z44</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for the initials of the <a href="London_Symphony_Orchestra" title="London Symphony Orchestra">London Symphony Orchestra</a> (=La Es Sol) and <a href="Michael_Tilson_Thomas" title="Michael Tilson Thomas">Michael Tilson Thomas</a> (=Mi Ti Ti), used by <a href="Oliver_Knussen" title="Oliver Knussen">Oliver Knussen</a> in Flourish with fireworks. Thomas commissioned Knussen for the opening concert of his first season as principal conductor of the London Symphony Orchestra - the piece is "affectionately dedicated to Michael Tilson Thomas and the London Symphony Orchestra."<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for Brahms, used by Alfred Schnittke in his Quasi Una Sonata along with the B-A-C-H motif and other quotations, and allusions<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for Johann Sebastian Bach</dd></dl>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="BACH_motif" title="BACH motif">BACH motif</a></div>

<dl><dd>for Joseph Haydn, used by Maurice Ravel in his <a href="Menuet_sur_le_nom_d'Haydn" class="mw-redirect" title="Menuet sur le nom d'Haydn">Menuet sur le nom d'Haydn</a> and by other contributors to the S.I.M. commemoration and derived on the French system</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Mitrofan_Belyayev" title="Mitrofan Belyayev">Mitrofan Belyayev</a>, used by <a href="Nikolay_Rimsky-Korsakov" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov">Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov</a>, <a href="Alexander_Borodin" title="Alexander Borodin">Alexander Borodin</a>, <a href="Anatoly_Lyadov" title="Anatoly Lyadov">Anatoly Lyadov</a> and <a href="Alexander_Glazunov" title="Alexander Glazunov">Alexander Glazunov</a> in a string quartet</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>from the Russian phrase берегись Лядова (beregis' <a href="Anatoly_Lyadov" title="Anatoly Lyadov">Lyadova</a>, beware of Lyadov), used by <a href="Nikolay_Myaskovsky" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikolay Myaskovsky">Nikolay Myaskovsky</a> in his String Quartet No. 3</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="B%C3%A9la_Bart%C3%B3k" title="Béla Bartók">Béla Bartók</a> (Béla Bartók, the latter motif recognizing the <a href="Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a> practice of placing the family name before the personal name)</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="John_Cage" title="John Cage">John Cage</a>, used by <a href="Pauline_Oliveros" title="Pauline Oliveros">Pauline Oliveros</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> and, in the composition CAGE DEAD, by <a href="Penguin_Cafe_Orchestra" title="Penguin Cafe Orchestra">Simon Jeffes</a> of the Penguin Cafe Orchestra.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Carl_Philipp_Emanuel_Bach" title="Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach">Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach</a> with the initials of his name - Carl Philipp (Filippo) Emanuel Bach -. The motif is based on the German musical nomenclature, however the initials of the composer’s name appear partially in German and in Italian version, instead of Philipp as Filippo. The C. F. E. BACH motif appears in an unpublished Fughetta in F major of C. Ph. E. Bach, found in the <a href="Royal_Conservatory_of_Brussels" title="Royal Conservatory of Brussels">Brussels Conservatorium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></dd></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="C._F._E._BACH_motif" title="C. F. E. BACH motif">C. F. E. BACH motif</a></div>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Josef_Dachs" title="Josef Dachs">Josef Dachs</a>. He was a piano teacher at the Vienna conservatory. <a href="Hans_Rott" title="Hans Rott">Hans Rott</a> was probably one of his students at the conservatory when he composed his Dachs-Studie for string orchestra.</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for Dmitri Shostakovich (D. Schostakowitsch)</dd></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="DSCH_motif" title="DSCH motif">DSCH motif</a></div>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Paul_Sacher" title="Paul Sacher">Paul Sacher</a>, known as the <a href="Hexachord#20th_century" title="Hexachord">Sacher hexachord</a></dd></dl>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Sacher_hexachord" title="Sacher hexachord">Sacher hexachord</a></div>

<dl><dd>for <a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elmira_N%C9%99zirova" class="extiw external" title="de:Elmira Nəzirova">Elmira Nazirova</a>, pupil of Dmitri Shostakovich, used in his <a href="Symphony_No._10_(Shostakovich)" title="Symphony No. 10 (Shostakovich)">Symphony No. 10</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Edvard_Grieg" title="Edvard Grieg">Edvard Grieg</a>; his full name being Edvard Hagerup Grieg, the motif is a descending E-minor arpeggio which opens his <a href="Piano_Sonata_(Grieg)" title="Piano Sonata (Grieg)">Piano Sonata (Grieg)</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for Schumann, used in Carnaval, it is a re-ordering of that piece's A-S-C-H motif</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for Frei aber einsam and Frei aber froh, "free but lonely" and "free but happy" in German; the former, his friend <a href="Joseph_Joachim" title="Joseph Joachim">Joseph Joachim</a>'s motto (<a href="F-A-E_Sonata" title="F-A-E Sonata">F-A-E Sonata</a>), described as "more romantic" than the latter, a "gender-separatist" motto of Johannes Brahms's<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="Symphony_No._3_(Brahms)" title="Symphony No. 3 (Brahms)">Symphony No. 3</a></dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Franz_Schubert" title="Franz Schubert">Franz Schubert</a> (F. Schubert) </dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for Gabriel Fauré, used by contributors to Henri Prunières' Fauré celebration in the October 1922 issue of La revue musicale<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> (F, A, G, D had also been used 20 years earlier for "Fauré" in a collaborative string quartet)</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Niels_Gade" title="Niels Gade">Niels Gade</a>; the motif is the basis of Robert Schumann's "Nordisches Lied", No. 41 from <a href="Album_for_the_Young" title="Album for the Young">Album for the Young</a>, Op. 68. Its subtitle is "Gruss an G."</dd></dl>

<dl><dd>for <a href="Gustav_Holst" title="Gustav Holst">Gustav Holst</a> (Gustav Holst), used as the opening motif in the movement Uranus from <a href="The_Planets" title="The Planets">The Planets</a>.</dd></dl>

<ul><li><a href="Cross_motif" title="Cross motif">Cross motif</a></li>

<li><a href="Cruciform#Cruciform_melody" title="Cruciform">Cruciform</a></li>

<li><a href="Composer_tributes_(classical_music)" title="Composer tributes (classical music)">Composer tributes (classical music)</a></li>

<li><a href="Schoenberg_hexachord" title="Schoenberg hexachord">Schoenberg hexachord</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Hiley, David 'Notation III, 1 (vi)' in Sadie, Stanley (ed.), The New Grove dictionary of music and musicians, Macmillan, 1980, (6th ed. of the Grove dictionary), vol.13, p. 348–349

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</style><cite id="CITEREFSandzer-Bell" class="citation web cs1">Sandzer-Bell, Ezra. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.audiocipher.com/post/musical-cryptogram">"What is a Musical Cryptogram?"</a>. AudioCipher. Retrieved 17 November 2021.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Justin Wintle (2009). The Concise Makers of Modern Culture, p.123. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-415-47782-4</bdi>.

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<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <a href="Diana_McVeagh" title="Diana McVeagh">McVeagh, Diana</a> (2007) Elgar the Music Maker. Woodbridge, Suffolk: Boydell Press. p. 3. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-84383-295-9</bdi>. "The Allegretto on GEDGE (1885) is based, Schumann-like, on the musical letters of Elgar's pupils, the Gedge sisters."

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<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFTatlow,_Ruth1991" class="citation book cs1">Tatlow, Ruth (1991). Bach and the Riddle of the Number Alphabet. p. 25. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-36191-5</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFRegardieCiceroCicero1998" class="citation book cs1">Regardie, Israel; Cicero, Chic; Cicero, Sandra Tabatha (1998-01-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KocDfK3cNpIC">The Middle Pillar: The Balance Between Mind and Magic</a>. Llewellyn Worldwide. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781567181401</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://solfa-co.de">"Solfa Cipher"</a>. solfa-co.de. Retrieved 2025-01-08.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMcAvoy,_Gary2021" class="citation book cs1">McAvoy, Gary (2021). Vivaldi Cipher. Literati Editions. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-954123-07-6</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAnderson2002" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson, Julian (July 2002). "Harmonic Practices in Oliver Knussen's Music since 1988: Part I". Tempo (New Series, No. 221): 2–13. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0040298200015618">10.1017/S0040298200015618</a>. <a href="JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/946777">946777</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145399155">145399155</a>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSchmelz,_Peter_J.2009" class="citation book cs1">Schmelz, Peter J. (2009). Such Freedom, If Only Musical. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 254. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-19-534193-5</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eamusic.dartmouth.edu/~larry/dear.john/DearJohnNotes.html">"Pauline Oliveros: Dear.John (Notes on the computer realization by Larry Polansky)"</a>. eamusic.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 10 January 2025.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u9A4AQAAIAAJ&q=%22cage+dead%22">"Gramophone Explorations (search on "cage dead")"</a>. Vol. II. Gramophone Explorations, Gramophone Publications Limited – via books.google.com.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKomlós2015" class="citation book cs1">Komlós, Katalin (2015). Tanulmányok a 18. századi zene történetéből [Studies in the history of 18th-century music]. Rózsavölgyi és Társa. p. 31. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-615-80071-7-7</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAdam_Krims1998" class="citation book cs1">Adam Krims, ed. (1998). Music and Ideology: Resisting the Aesthetic. Psychology Press. p. Z-69. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>90-5701-321-5</bdi>.</cite>

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<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNectoux,_Jean-Michel1991" class="citation book cs1">Nectoux, Jean-Michel (1991). Gabriel Fauré: a musical life. Translated by Roger Nichols. Cambridge University Press. p. 427. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-521-23524-3</bdi>.</cite>

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</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li>Code, David Løberg (2023). "Can musical encryption be both? A survey of music-based ciphers." Cryptologia Volume 47 - Issue 4, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01611194.2021.2021565">https://doi.org/10.1080/01611194.2021.2021565</a></li>

<li>Djossa, Christina Ayele (2018). "With Musical Cryptography, Composers Can Hide Messages in Their Melodies" Atlas Obscura March 26, 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/musical-cryptography-codes">https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/musical-cryptography-codes</a></li>

<li>Young, Ondine Tobin (1996). Frei aber einsam, frei aber froh: cyphered motives and performance practice. University of California, Santa Cruz.</li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="BACH_motif" title="BACH motif">BACH motif</a></li>

<li><a href="C._F._E._BACH_motif" title="C. F. E. BACH motif">C. F. E. BACH motif</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross_motif" title="Cross motif">Cross motif</a></li>

<li><a href="Dresden_amen" title="Dresden amen">Dresden amen</a></li>

<li><a href="DSCH_motif" title="DSCH motif">DSCH motif</a></li>

<li><a href="Sacher_hexachord" title="Sacher hexachord">Sacher hexachord</a></li>

<li><a href="Schoenberg_hexachord" title="Schoenberg hexachord">Schoenberg hexachord</a></li></ul>

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<ul><li><a href="Cruciform#Cruciform_melody" title="Cruciform">Cruciform melody</a></li>

<li><a href="Figure_(music)" title="Figure (music)">Figure</a></li>

<li><a href="Fortspinnung" title="Fortspinnung">Fortspinnung</a></li>

<li><a href="Leitmotif" title="Leitmotif">Leitmotif</a></li>

<li><a href="Ostinato" title="Ostinato">Ostinato</a></li>

<li><a href="Pianto" title="Pianto">Pianto</a></li></ul>

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